Conclusions:
1. White-tailed deer are widespread through the study area in Alberta's northeast boreal forest.
2. WTD distribution shrinks more markedly in more severe winters, but rebounds quickly in each spring, regardless of winter severity.
3. WTD distribution is positively related to anthropogenic features generated by forest harvesting and petroleum extraction, as well as upland deciduous forest.
4. Individual WTD selected anthropogenic features associated with early seral vegetation, including those stemming from forest harvesting, petroleum exploration and extraction, and transportation infrastructure.
5. WTD density dropped markedly after a severe winter, but then remained stable following a second severe winter.
6. Camera-based surveys and spatially explicit mark-resight models offer a way of enumerating deer density in environments where aerial surveys miss many animals due to poor sightability.
In summary, we suggest there is strong evidence that white-tailed deer expansion in the boreal forest is due to an interaction between less severe winters following climate change, and a substantial forage subsidy provided by widespread anthropogenic features. There is no evidence to suggest this issue is mainly a result of climate change, or of landscape change, but instead is like due to the interacting effects of climate and landscape change. This research suggests landscape management, in addition to population management, will be a key component of a white-tailed deer management strategy.